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How to Make Money Blogging

Five Parts:Finding Your InspirationDeciding on a Blogging PlatformCreating Compelling ContentMarketing Your BlogMonetizing Your BlogCommunity Q&A

Making money through blogging requires a carefully thought out topic. If you have an existing blog with a small audience, be honest when considering whether the topic has broad appeal that isn't already covered by other established bloggers. If it does, great! Otherwise, there's nothing wrong with starting a second blog that will be more successful in attracting an audience, marketing itself, and making money through a variety of methods described below.

Part1

Finding Your Inspiration

1. 1
   Write down every topic that you are knowledgeable or passionate about. You'll have a much easier time making money from a blog you are interested in, rather than trying to write content you don't like because you think it will make money.^[1] Some examples are hobbies that you enjoy, your career, or some specific and miscellaneous knowledge that you have.

   • Some of the most financially successful blogs provide news on a specific topic or targeted to a particular demographic. Mashable, a blog focused primarily on social media news, was founded by a teenager in 2005 and now attracts millions of dollars in investment funding.^[2][3]
   • Many blogs post funny videos and images around a certain topic. Fail Blog is a famous example, posting examples of mishaps, misspellings, and other "stupid" actions. It makes its money primarily through advertising, and now sells a highly successful book as well.^[4]
   • Some blogs are focused on getting paid to provide links to news articles, company stores, or other third party websites. The most financially successful of these range from the Drudge, a blog composed almost entirely of conservative-leaning news links, to Smashing Magazine, a site that provides advice and product reviews to help software developers.^[5][6]
   • Additional common topics covered by the most valuable blogs include business (Business Insider), sports (SBNation), celebrity gossip (Perez Hilton), and music (Pitchfork).
2. 2
   Narrow down the topics by reflecting on profitability and other goals. In order to make money, you'll need to find a niche that other people haven't filled already, but is still popular enough to attract a significant number of visitors. Also consider other factors, such as money you'd have to spend if your blog focused on reviewing products that you in turn would have to buy.

   • Choose a specific niche, not a broad topic. Write about training for marathons, not general fitness. Write about making glass jewelry, not arts and crafts.
   • If you want to be famous or reach a wide audience, you will have to choose something slightly broader and work hard to make the best content for that topic. A subtopic relating to fitness, finance, or relationship advice is likely to reach the most people. Consider specific but broadly applicable topics such as managing money in college, or a marriage counseling blog.
3. 3
   Search for blogs that cover similar topics. Use a search engine and the search bar on blog hosting sites to find blogs that cover your topic or related topic. Read a few blog posts from the most popular ones, that show up high on the search ranking, have the most comments, or display a readership of 20,000 or more.^[7] Get an idea for how much interest and competition there is.

   • If you can't find any popular blogs related to your topic, you probably went too niche. People interested in a topic will often visit several related blogs, and each blogger can link to the other to direct more traffic to each site.
   • If you find a popular blog that exactly covers your topic, be aware that it will be difficult to compete with them. Try to tweak your topic to a slightly different but related subject, so you complement the popular blogs instead of trying to overtake them.
4. 4
   Test how knowledgeable you are about the topic. If you're not sure you have enough to write about, try writing as many article headlines as you can before you create your blog. If you can't think of at least thirty that fit your topic, you should choose something else that you know more about.

Part2

Deciding on a Blogging Platform

1. 1
   Consider a free blogging service. Many people opt to create a free blog using popular services such as WordPress.com or Google Blogger. This is a good option for people who aren't familiar with web design, don't want to pay for their own hosting, or enjoy the ease and stability that comes with these services. These services do have limitations on how you can make money using them, however, so make sure your blog won't break the terms of service.

   • WordPress.com supports limited advertising, paypal links, and limited affiliate links. The website will not host blogs that contain third party ad services, banner ads, sites primarily used for affiliate links, or any advertisements for get rich quick schemes, gambling, pornography, multi-level marketing, or "disreputable merchants".^[8][9][10]
   • Google Blogger supports advertising through Google AdSense, paypal links, and limited affiliate links. If you use excessive affiliate links, fail to add relevant content when including affiliate links, or get paid to increase someone's search engine ranking, Google will move your blog much lower in the search rankings, greatly decreasing your audience traffic.^[11][12]
   • If you are not familiar with these terms, they are described under Monetizing Your Blog.

propeller

Propeller Ads Review: Pros & Cons And Everything You Need To Know

BY MAHESH MOHAN ON JULY 21, 2015

Google AdSense is the biggest (and the most popular) ad network with millions of advertisers and publishers. Thanks to Google’s huge AdWords ad inventory.

However, it doesn’t really mean that AdSense is always the best way to monetize your website. There are a dozen other ad networks that are willing to pay a higher CPM for your traffic. Propeller Ads is one of them.

CPM (Cost Per Mille) stands for Cost Per 1,000 Impressions. CPM networks pays for every 1,000 impressions you generate. If a CPM ad network is paying you $1 CPM then it means that they’re paying you $1 for every 1,000 page views you generate.

Over the past one decade I’ve recommended AdSense and only AdSense — on my blog posts, blog comments, email enquiries, and everywhere else. And it was simply because… AdSense has got an ad inventory that’s unmatched by any other ad network. So, I imagined that no other ad network can beat the CPM offered by AdSense.

Read: How Much Traffic Do You Need To Make $100,000 With AdSense

But the problem is… we can’t predict the AdSense income. As you can see… I’m not longer monetizing the blog with any of those ad networks and the reason is none of them gives guaranteed income (except private ads network like BuySellAds.com).

I used to average around $0.50 per click on AdSense for several years and then it suddenly dropped to $0.05-$0.15 per click for few months and then it started giving over $1 per click. However, it didn’t last for long and I pulled off all sorts of ad networks on the blog and started selling selective private ads only.

Why Propeller Ads

Propeller Ads is an ad network based in U.K. that promises 100% of your international traffic and the highest CPM possible. Traffic from the following countries generates the maximum CPM: U.S. & Canada, U.K., and Australia.

Unlike Google AdSense, Propeller Ads is a CPM ad network which basically means that it pays for every 1,000 ad impressions you generate. So it doesn’t matter whether the users are clicking your ads or not — you get paid! And that’s why large publishers prefer CPM networks over CPC ad networks (like AdSense, Bing Ads, etc.).

If your traffic and its quality is stable then CPM ads can generate guaranteed income every day and every month. Have you ever noticed the way some of the high-traffic websites display content as 10-50 slides? Yes, it’s to increase the number of pages views per visit — and eventually the CPM.

Propeller Ads: Types Of Ad Products

Propeller Ads offers you a variety of ad products and that’s one space where Propeller Ads outsmart other ad networks — including Google AdSense. So it doesn’t matter what type of your blog or website you own — there will always be an ad product for you.

But that doesn’t mean that you can send them fake traffic (autosurf, traffic exchanges, etc.) and make a lot of money. It won’t work that way. Obviously.

Here are the different types of ad products offered by Propeller Ads:

1. OnClick PopUnder Ads

OnClick PopUnder Ads is perhaps the most effective ad product by Propeller Ads as it offers the maximum CPM rate (up to $10). It’s because you get paid for each ad impression (it works on mobile devices too!).

According to Propeller Ads, entertainment websites (music, movies, photo, downloads, games, viral content, etc.) gets the best CPM for pop-under ads.

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electrical terminals system,

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DC circuit equations and laws

DC circuit equations and laws



Ohm's and Joule's Laws



NOTE: the symbol "V" ("U" in Europe) is sometimes used to represent voltage instead of "E". In some cases, an author or circuit designer may choose to exclusively use "V" for voltage, never using the symbol "E." Other times the two symbols are used interchangeably, or "E" is used to represent voltage from a power source while "V" is used to represent voltage across a load (voltage "drop").


Kirchhoff's Laws

"The algebraic sum of all voltages in a loop must equal zero."

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)



"The algebraic sum of all currents entering and exiting a node must equal zero."

Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)

DC circuit equations and laws



Ohm's and Joule's Laws



NOTE: the symbol "V" ("U" in Europe) is sometimes used to represent voltage instead of "E". In some cases, an author or circuit designer may choose to exclusively use "V" for voltage, never using the symbol "E." Other times the two symbols are used interchangeably, or "E" is used to represent voltage from a power source while "V" is used to represent voltage across a load (voltage "drop").


Kirchhoff's Laws

"The algebraic sum of all voltages in a loop must equal zero."

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)



"The algebraic sum of all currents entering and exiting a node must equal zero."

Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)

Ohm's and Joule's Laws



NOTE: the symbol "V" ("U" in Europe) is sometimes used to represent voltage instead of "E". In some cases, an author or circuit designer may choose to exclusively use "V" for voltage, never using the symbol "E." Other times the two symbols are used interchangeably, or "E" is used to represent voltage from a power source while "V" is used to represent voltage across a load (voltage "drop").


Kirchhoff's Laws

"The algebraic sum of all voltages in a loop must equal zero."

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)



"The algebraic sum of all currents entering and exiting a node must equal zero."

Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)

AMMETR

AMMETER

"Amperemeter" redirects here. For the unit of measurement, see Ampere-meter.

Demonstration model of a moving iron ammeter. As the current through the coil increases, the plunger is drawn further into the coil and the pointer deflects to the right.

Wire carrying current to be measured.
Spring providing restoring force
This illustration is conceptual; in a practical meter, the iron core is stationary, and front and rear spiral springs carry current to the coil, which is supported on a rectangular bobbin. Furthermore, the poles of the permanent magnet are arcs of a circle.

Ammeter from the old Penn StationTerminal Service Plant in New York City

Zero-center ammeter

An older moving iron ammeter with its characteristic non-linear scale and with the moving iron ammeter symbol mounted on asmall form factor PC.

An ammeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the electric current in acircuit. Electric currents are measured in amperes (A), hence the name. Instruments used to measure smaller currents, in the milliampere or microampere range, are designated as milliammeters or microammeters. Early ammeters were laboratory instruments which relied on the Earth's magnetic field for operation. By the late 19th century, improved instruments were designed which could be mounted in any position and allowed accurate measurements in electric power systems.

History[edit]

The relation between electric current, magnetic fields and physical forces was first noted by Hans Christian Ørsted who, in 1820, observed a compass^[1]

 needle was deflected from pointing North when a current flowed in an adjacent wire. The tangent galvanometer was used to measure currents using this effect, where the restoring force returning the pointer to the zero position was provided by the Earth's magnetic field. This made these instruments usable only when aligned with the Earth's field. Sensitivity of the instrument was increased by using additional turns of wire to multiply the effect – the instruments were called "multipliers".

Types[edit]

Moving-coil[edit]

The D'Arsonval galvanometer is a moving coil ammeter. It uses magneticdeflection, where current passing through a coil causes the coil to move in amagnetic field. The modern form of this instrument was developed by Edward Weston, and uses two spiral springs to provide the restoring force. The uniform air gap between the iron core and the permanent magnet poles make the deflection of the meter linearly proportional to current. These meters have linear scales. Basic meter movements can have full-scale deflection for currents from about 25microamperes to 10 milliamperes.^[2]

Because the magnetic field is polarised, the meter needle acts in opposite directions for each direction of current. A DC ammeter is thus sensitive to which way round it is connected; most are marked with a positive terminal, but some have centre-zero mechanisms^{[note 1]} and can display currents in either direction. A moving coil meter indicates the average (mean) of a varying current through it,^{[note 2]} which is zero for AC. For this reason moving-coil meters are only usable directly for DC, not AC.

This type of meter movement is extremely common for both ammeters and other meters derived from them, such as voltmeters and ohmmeters. Although their use has become less common in recent decades, this type of basic movement was once the standard indicator mechanism for any analogue displays involving electrical machinery.

d permanent magnet to provide the restoring force.

Electrodynamic[edit]

An electrodynamic movement uses an electromagnet instead of the permanent magnet of the d'Arsonval movement. T

Moving magnet[edit]

Moving magnet ammeters operate on essentially the same principle as moving coil, except that the coil is mounted in the meter case, and a permanent magnet moves the needle. Moving magnet Ammeters are able to carry larger currents than moving coil instruments, often several tens of Amperes, because the coil can be made of thicker wire and the current does not have to be carried by the hairsprings. Indeed, some Ammeters of this type do not have hairsprings at all, instead using a fixehis instrument can respond to both alternating and direct current^[2] and also indicates true RMS for AC. See Wattmeter for an alternative use for this instrument.

Moving-iron[edit]

Moving iron ammeters use a piece of iron which moves when acted upon by the electromagnetic force of a fixed coil of wire. This type of meter responds to both directand alternating currents (as opposed to the moving-coil ammeter, which works on direct current only). The iron element consists of a moving vane attached to a pointer, and a fixed vane, surrounded by a coil. As alternating or direct current flows through the coil and induces a magnetic field in both vanes, the vanes repel each other and the moving vane deflects against the restoring force provided by fine helical springs.^[2] The deflection of a moving iron meter is proportional to the square of the current. Consequently such meters would normally have a non linear scale, but the iron parts are usually modified in shape to make the scale fairly linear over most of its range. Moving iron instruments indicate the RMS value of any AC waveform applied.

The moving-iron meter was invented by Austrian engineer Friedrich Drexler in 1884.^[3]

Hot-wire[edit]

In a hot-wire ammeter, a current passes through a wire which expands as it heats. Although these instruments have slow response time and low accuracy, they were sometimes used in measuring radio-frequency current.^[2] These also measure true RMS for an applied AC current.

Digital[edit]

In much the same way as the analogue ammeter formed the basis for a wide variety of derived meters, including voltmeters, the basic mechanism for a digital meter is a digital voltmeter mechanism, and other types of meter are built around this.

Digital ammeter designs use a shunt resistor to produce a calibrated voltage proportional to the current flowing. This voltage is then measured by a digital voltmeter, through use of an analog to digital converter (ADC); the digital display is calibrated to display the current through the shunt. Such instruments are generally calibrated to indicate the RMS value for a sine wave only but some designs will indicate true RMS (sometimes with limitations as to wave shape).

VOLTMETER

VOLTMETER

A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical potential difference between two points in an electric circuit. Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in proportion to the voltage of the circuit; digital voltmeters give a numerical display of voltage by use of an analog to digital converter.

Voltmeters are made in a wide range of styles. Instruments permanently mounted in a panel are used to monitor generators or other fixed apparatus. Portable instruments, usually equipped to also measure current and resistance in the form of a multimeter, are standard test instruments used in electrical and electronics work. Any measurement that can be converted to a voltage can be displayed on a meter that is suitably calibrated; for example, pressure, temperature, flow or level in a chemical process plant.

General purpose analog voltmeters may have an accuracy of a few percent of full scale, and are used with voltages from a fraction of a volt to several thousand volts. Digital meters can be made with high accuracy, typically better than 1%. Specially calibrated test instruments have higher accuracies, with laboratory instruments capable of measuring to accuracies of a few parts per million. Meters usingamplifiers can measure tiny voltages of microvolts or less.

Part of the problem of making an accurate voltmeter is that of calibration to check its accuracy. In laboratories, the Weston Cell is used as a standard voltage for precision work. Precision voltage references are available based on electronic circuits.

Contents

  [hide] 

• 1 Analog voltmeter
• 2 VTVMs and FET-VMs
• 3 Digital voltmeter
• 4 See also
• 5 References

Analog voltmeter[edit]

A moving coil galvanometer of thed'Arsonval type.

• The red wire carries the current to be measured.
• The restoring spring is shown ingreen.
• N and S are the north and south poles of the magnet.

A moving coil galvanometer can be used as a voltmeter by inserting a high-resistance resistor in series with the instrument. It employs a small coil of fine wire suspended in a strong magnetic field. When an electric current is applied, the galvanometer's indicator rotates and compresses a small spring. The angular rotation is proportional to the current through the coil. For use as a voltmeter, a series resistor is added so that the angular rotation becomes proportional to the applied voltage.

One of the design objectives of the instrument is to disturb the circuit as little as possible and so the instrument should draw a minimum of current to operate. This is achieved by using a sensitive galvanometer in series with a high resistance.

The sensitivity of such a meter can be expressed as "ohms per volt", the number of ohms resistance in the meter circuit divided by the full scale measured value. For example a meter with a sensitivity of 1000 ohms per volt would draw 1 milliampere at full scale voltage; if the full scale was 200 volts, the resistance at the instrument's terminals would be 200,000 ohms and at full scale the meter would draw 1 milliampere from the circuit under test. For multi-range instruments, the input resistance varies as the instrument is switched to different ranges.

Moving-coil instruments with a permanent-magnet field respond only to direct current. Measurement of AC voltage requires a rectifier in the circuit so that the coil deflects in only one direction. Moving-coil instruments are also made with the zero position in the middle of the scale instead of at one end; these are useful if the voltage reverses its polarity.

Voltmeters operating on the electrostatic principle use the mutual repulsion between two charged plates to deflect a pointer attached to a spring. Meters of this type draw negligible current but are sensitive to voltages over about 100 volts and work with either alternating or direct current.

VTVMs and FET-VMs[edit]

The sensitivity and input resistance of a voltmeter can be increased if the current required to deflect the meter pointer is supplied by an amplifier and power supply instead of by the circuit under test. The electronic amplifier between input and meter gives two benefits; a rugged moving coil instrument can be used, since its sensitivity need not be high, and the input resistance can be made high, reducing the current drawn from the circuit under test. Amplified voltmeters often have an input resistance of 1, 10, or 20 megohms which is independent of the range selected. A once-popular form of this instrument used a vacuum tube in the amplifier circuit and so was called the vacuum tube voltmeter, or VTVM. These were almost always powered by the local AC line current and so were not particularly portable. Today these circuits use a solid-state amplifier using field-effect transistors, hence FET-VM, and appear in handheld digital multimeters as well as in bench and laboratory instruments. These are now so ubiquitous that they have largely replaced non-amplified multimeters except in the least expensive price ranges.

Most VTVMs and FET-VMs handle DC voltage, AC voltage, and resistance measurements; modern FET-VMs add current measurements and often other functions as well. A specialized form of the VTVM or FET-VM is the AC voltmeter. These instruments are optimized for measuring AC voltage. They have much wider bandwidth and better sensitivity than a typical multifunction device.

Digital voltmeter[edit]

Two digital voltmeters. Note the 40 microvolt difference between the two measurements, an offset of 34 parts per million.

The first digital voltmeter was invented and produced by Andrew Kay of Non-Linear Systems (and later founder of Kaypro) in 1954.

Digital voltmeters (DVMs) are usually designed around a special type of analog-to-digital converter called an integrating converter. Voltmeter accuracy is affected by many factors, including temperature and supply voltage variations. To ensure that a digital voltmeter's reading is within the manufacturer's specified tolerances, they should be periodically calibrated against a voltage standard such as the Weston cell.

Digital voltmeters necessarily have input amplifiers, and, like vacuum tube voltmeters, generally have a constant input resistance of 10 megohms regardless of set measurement range.

See also[edit]

• Electrical measurements
• Electrometer
• Electronic test equipment
• Metrology
• Multimeter
• Ohmmeter
• Potentiometer (measuring instrument)
• Solenoid voltmeter
• Voltage divider
• Class of accuracy in electrical measurements

v

VOLTAGE CONTROLLER,

VOLTAGE CONTROLLER,



Voltage fluctuation is a common phenomenon in every part of the country. The industrial units running round the clock usually face the problem of low and high voltage. 90% of industrial load is of motors. Electric motors draw considerably high current at low & high voltage. This higher current affects the electrical motors (particularly smaller capacity motors up to 7.5 H.P.) in three ways.

Higher current produces higher losses in electrical motors which causes premature failure of winding
These higher losses of electric motors also increase the losses of cables, switches, transformers and other associated equipment
For smooth continuous operation of motors, overload relays are usually set at 20% higher setting.


Automatic Voltage Controller is the most efficient equipment used to tackle this problem. We are one of the principal Industrial Automatic Voltage Controller Suppliers in India. Servo Controlled Automatic Voltage Controller that we offer has various advantages that help in saving a lot on electricity bill.

Advantages
Reduction in Breakdown of Electrical Equipment
Energy Saving
Improvement in Power Factor
Reduction in MDI
Uniform Quality of End Product
80% Depreciation as per Income Tax Act

Payback Period

Owing to its high efficiency and associated benefits, the payback period for the cost of Servo Voltage Stabilizer is from 6-12 months depending upon the input voltage variation and number of working hours of the plant. The HIGHER the input voltage the SHORTER will be the payback period.

Description of Automatic Voltage Controller
Servo Stabilizer primarily consists of the following

Linear Type Plus/Minus type Vertical Rolling Contact type Regulator
Double Wound Buck/Boost Transformer
Electronic Control Circuit and meter panel.


The regulator and buck boost transformer are oil cooled, housed in same or separate steel tanks. Radiators, if necessary are provided for effective cooling. Their core is built from grain oriented silicon steel Laminations which keep losses to the minimum and they are wound with electrolytic grade copper to minimize the losses, vacuum impregnated and oven dried as per IS. Attention for Power Consumer Units Having L.T. Connections but Not Having Their Own Distribution Transformer and situated in Commercial / residential Areas.

It has been observed that the said power consumers usually face unbalanced input voltage problem and to overcome the same should install Automatic Voltage Controller suitable for unbalanced input voltage (individual phase control).

Solar Street Lighting System

Solar Street Lighting System

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We present the finest range of Solar Street Lighting System in the market. We are considered as one of the ace Street Lighting System Suppliers in Kanpur, UP. Solar Home Lighting System offered by us provides free, renewable energy in the home with every flick of a light switch. Solar lighting can aid with this by reducing reliance on fossil fuels and the electrical grid. In addition to this, it works to save the environment as well. The use of Solar Street Lighting System is a cost effective choice.

Application Areas
Street Lighting / Highway Lighting / Bridge Lighting purposes
Park Lighting & Garden Lighting purposes


Size & Quality
Octagonal/polygonal galvanized pole from 9meter to 12 meter on wind test of 180km per hour.

ELECTRICAL GROUNDI ANDEARTHING SYSTEMS

ELECTRICAL GROUNDI  ANDEARTHING  SYSTEMS





Electrical grounding and earthing systems
Presentation Transcript
ELECTRICAL GROUNDING AND EARTHING SYSTEMS Presented By: T.Sidharth Sankar Achary Regd No-1021106019 7th sem. Electrical Engg.
CONTENTS INTRODUCTION. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROUND AND NEUTRAL. TYPES OF EARTHING SYSTEMS. TYPES OF GROUNDING. USES. CONCEPT OF VIRTUAL GROUND. MULTIPOINT GROUND. CONCLUSION. REFERENCES.
INTRODUCTION In electricity supply systems, an earthing system defines the electrical potential of the conductors relative to that of the Earths conductive surface. The choice of earthing system has implications for the safety and electromagnetic compatibility of the power supply. A protective earth (PE) connection ensures that all exposed conductive surfaces are at the same electrical potential as the surface of the Earth, to avoid the risk of electrical shock if a person touches a device in which an insulation fault has occurred. It also ensures that in the case of an insulation fault, a high fault current flows, which will trigger an over current protection device (fuse, MCB) that disconnects the power supply. A functional earth connection serves a purpose other than providing protection against electrical shock.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROUND AND NEUTRAL. Ground or earth in a mains (AC power) electrical wiring system is a conductor that exists primarily to help protect against faults and which in normal operation does not carry current. Neutral is a circuit conductor that may carry current in normal operation, and which is usually connected to earth. In house wiring, it is the center tap connection of the secondary winding of the power companys transformer. In a polyphase or three-wire AC system, the neutral conductor is intended to have similar voltages to each of the other circuit conductors, and similar phase spacing. By this definition, a circuit must have at least three wires for one to serve as a neutral. In the electrical trade, the conductor of a 2-wire circuit that is connected to the supply neutral point and earth ground is also referred to as the "neutral". This is formally described in the US and Canadian electrical codes as the "identified" circuit conductor.
TYPES OF EARTHING SYSTEMS International standard IEC 60364 distinguishes three families of earthing arrangements, using the two-letter codes TN, TT, and IT. The first letter indicates the connection between earth and the power-supply equipment (generator or transformer): T : direct connection of a point with earth (French: terre); I : no point is connected with earth (isolation), except perhaps via a high impedance.The second letter indicates the connection between earth and the electrical device being supplied: T : direct connection with earth, independent of any other earth connection in the supply system; N : connection to earth via the supply network.
TN NETWORK
TN-S NETWORK
TN-C NETWORK
TN-C-S NETWORK
TT NETWORK
IT NETWORK
TYPES OF GROUNDING In radio frequency communications In AC power wiring installations Circuit ground versus earth. In lightning protection
In radio frequency communications An electrical connection to earth for as a reference potential for radio frequency antenna signals. High frequency signals can flow to earth through capacitance, capacitance to ground is an important factor in effectiveness of signal grounds. An ideal signal ground maintains zero voltage regardless of how much electrical current flows into ground or out of ground. The resistance at the signal frequency of the electrode-to-earth connection determines its quality, and that quality is improved by increasing the surface area of the electrode in contact with the earth, increasing the depth to which it is driven, using several connected ground rods, increasing the moisture of the soil, improving the conductive mineral content of the soil, and increasing the land area covered by the ground system.
In AC power wiring installations In a mains (AC power) wiring installation, the ground is a wire with an electrical connection to earth, that provides an alternative path to the ground for heavy currents that might otherwise flow through a victim of electric shock. These may be located locally, be far away in the suppliers network or in many cases both. This grounding wire is usually but not always connected to the neutral wire at some point. The ground wire is also usually bonded to pipe work to keep it at the same potential as the electrical ground during a fault. Water supply pipes often used to be used as ground electrodes but this was banned in some countries when plastic pipe such as PVC became popular. This type of ground applies to radio antennas and to lightning protection systems.
Circuit ground versus earth In an electrical circuit operating at signal voltages (usually less than 50 V or so), a common return path that is the zero voltage reference level for the equipment or system. Voltage is a differential quantity, which appears between two points having some electrical potentials. In order to deal only with a voltage (an electrical potential) of a single point, the second point has to be connected to a reference point (ground) having usually zero voltage. This signal ground may or may not actually be connected to a power ground. A system where the system ground is not actually connected to earth is often referred to as a floating ground.
In lightning protection A ground conductor on a lightning protection system is used to dissipate the strike into the earth.
USES A power ground serves to provide a return path for fault currents and therefore allow the fuse or breaker to disconnect the circuit. Filters also connect to the power ground, but this is mainly to stop the power ground carrying noise into the systems which the filters protect, rather than as a direct use of the power ground. In Single Wire Earth Return (SWER) electrical distribution systems, costs are saved by using just a single high voltage conductor for the power grid. This system is mostly used in rural areas where large earth currents will not otherwise cause hazards. Signal grounds serve as return paths for signals and power at low voltages (less than about 50 V) within equipment, and on the signal interconnections between equipment.
GENERAL GROUNDING
GENERATOR EARTHING
VIRTUAL GROUND CONCEPT If two opposite power sources are connected each other by a conductive medium so that their opposite output quantities are superposed (summed), zero or reference level result referred to as virtual ground appears somewhere along the medium. In this "conflict" point, the efforts of the "fighting" sources are "neutralized". The process is associated with continuous energy wasting from both the sources as a result of a continuous energy flow through the medium. Shortly, virtual ground phenomenon is summing of opposite equal quantities associated with continuous energy wasting; virtual ground represents the result of summing two opposite equal quantities.
MULTI POINT GROUND A Multipoint Ground is an alternate type of electrical installation that attempts to solve the Ground Loop and Mains hum problem by creating many alternate paths for electrical energy to find its way back to ground. The distinguishing characteristic of a multipoint ground is the use of many interconnected grounding conductors into a loose grid configuration. There will be many paths between any two points in a multipoint grounding system, rather than the single path found in a star topology ground.
CONCLUSIONGrounding and Earthing systems form the first lineof defense in every type of electrical systems. Thesystem may be a generator/transformer/housinginstallation/generating station/etc. So it is strictlyadvised to know the basic concepts of grounding asfar as electrical engg. is concerned.

EARTHING SYSTEM

EARTHING   SYSTEMS



TT SYSTEM

A TT system has a direct connection to the supply source to earth and a direct connection of the installation metalwork to earth. An example is an overhead line supply with earth electrodes, and the mass of earth as a return path as shown below.


Note that only single-phase systems have been shown for simplicity.



TN-S SYSTEM

A TN-S system has the supply source directly connected to earth, the installation metalwork connected to the neutral of the supply source via the lead sheath of the supply cable, and the neutral and protective conductors throughout the whole system performing separate functions.





The resistance around the loop P-B-N-E should be no more than 0.8 ohms.





TN-C-S SYSTEM

A TN-C-S system is as the TN-S but the supply cable sheath is also the neutral, i.e. it forms a combined earth/neutral conductor known as a PEN (protective earthed neutral) conductor.

The installation earth and neutral are separate conductors.

This system is also known as PME (protective multiple earthing).



The resistance around the P-B-N-N loop should be less than 0.35 ohms.



SUMMARY OF EARTHING SYSTEMS



The TT method is used mostly in country areas with overhead transmission lines. In contrast to the TN-S system there is no metallic path from the consumer's terminals back to the sub-station transformer secondary windings. Because the earth path may be of high resistance, a residual current circuit-breaker (R.C.C.B.) is often fitted so that if a fault current flows in the earth path then a trip disconnects the phase supply.

For protection against indirect contact in domestic premises, every socket outlet requires an RCCB with a maximum rated current of 30mA.



The TN-S system of wiring uses the incoming cable sheath as the earth return path and the phase and neutral have separate conductors. The neutral is then connected to earth back at the transformer sub-station.

Remember in TN-S, the T stands for earth (terre), N for neutral and S denotes that the protective (earth) and neutral conductors are separate.



The TN-C-S system has only two conductors in the incoming cable, one phase and the other neutral. The earth is linked to the neutral at the consumer unit. The neutral therefore is really a combined earth/neutral conductor hence the name PME.



In order to avoid the risk of serious electric shock, it is important to provide a path for earth leakage currents to operate the circuit protection, and to endeavour to maintain all metalwork at the same potential. This is achieved by bonding together all metalwork of electrical and non-electrical systems to earth.

The path for leakage currents would then be via the earth itself in TT systems or by a metallic return path in TN-S or TN-C-S systems.